PREVALENCE OF JIGGER INFESTATION AMONG DIFFERENT DEMOGRAPHIC GROUPS IN NYAMIRA NORTH SUB-COUNTY, NYAMIRA COUNTY, KENYA
Keywords:
Jiggers, Prevalence, Infestation, Socio Economic, Nyamira
Abstract
Jigger infestation remains an important but neglected public health problem in endemic areas worldwide. This study was carried out in Nyamira North sub county, Nyamira County, Kenya. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess the prevalence of jigger infestation in order to inform targeted control interventions. Data were collected from a sample of residents of totalling n = 384 for ascertaining prevalence achieved through multistage random sampling approach. Quantitative data was done by structured questionnaires and physical inspection for infestation; qualitative data were obtained through in-depth interviews that were tape-recorded and transcribed for thematic analysis. Descriptive statistics, Chi-square tests, correlation analysis, and binary logistic regression were used to explore associations and identify independent predictors. The study population was predominantly rural (98.1%), older (44.1% aged 41–60 years), married (69.1%), and of low socio-economic status: 45.9% had only primary education, 74.4% were unemployed, and 82.8% lived in mud-walled houses. The overall prevalence of jigger infestation was 7.19% (23/320). The highest prevalence was observed among respondents aged below 20 years (10/19, 52.63%), divorced respondents (2/9, 22.22%), single respondents (7/47, 14.89%), males (13/166, 7.83%), and those with primary education (14/177, 7.91%). Chi-square analysis revealed statistically significant associations between jigger infestation and age group (χ² = 66.03, p < 0.001), marital status (χ² = 11.72, p = 0.008), and housing type (χ² = 5.14, p = 0.023), whereas gender, education level, employment status, and place of residence were not significantly associated with infestation (p > 0.05) while age group and rural/urban residence were not significant. Jigger infestation is highly prevalent in Nyamira North Sub-county and disproportionately affects the less educated, males, and marginalized social groups. The study recommends scaling up integrated interventions targeting health education, affordability, stigma reduction, and improved access to mitigate jigger infestation and its socio-economic consequences in the sub-county hence reduce prevalence.
References
Albert, J., & Kiprotich, S. (2016). Understanding the Cultural Context of Jigger Infestation in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Qualitative Study. International Journal of Dermatology, 55(8), 878-885.
Alwan, F., Maina, A., & Chege, M. (2023). Socio-cultural factors influencing the control of tungiasis infestation in rural Kenya: A qualitative study. Journal of Health Education Research & Development, 2023.
Amadi, P. O., Eze, C. N., & Okafor, C. L. (2022). Poverty and parasitic infestations: A cross-sectional study of tungiasis in rural Nigeria. Journal of Tropical Medicine, 15(3), 234–249.
Anyaele, O., &Enwemiwe, C. (2021). Socio-Economic Determinants of Jigger Infestation in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Cross-Sectional Study. BMC Public Health, 21, 1-10.
Chege, M., Njenga, J. M., &Mwiti, J. (2020). Readiness of healthcare facilities to manage cases of tungiasis infestation in rural Kenya: A facility-based assessment. Journal of Community Health Systems, 2020.
Choge, J. K., Kiprotich, J., &Ndung'u, M. (2020). Economic burden of tungiasis on households in rural Kenya: A cross-sectional study. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 2020.
Dvorak, G. J., Juma, R. O., & Muthoka, P. M. (2022). Emerging challenges in the control of tungiasis: A global perspective. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 2022.
Elson, L., Kamau, C., Koech, S., Muthama, &Fillinger, U. (2023). National prevalence and risk factors for tungiasis in Kenya. Infectious Diseases of Poverty, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-023-01131-x
Elson, L., Kamau, C., Koech, S., Muthama, C., & Fillinger, U. (2024). Tungiasis among children in Kenya is associated with poor nutrition status, absenteeism, poor school performance and high impact on quality of life. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 18(5). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0011800
Elson, L., Kamau, C., Koech, S., Muthama, C., Gachomba, G., Sinoti, E., Chondo, E., Mburu, E., Wakio, M., Lore, J., Maia, M., Adetifa, I., Orindi, B., Bejon, P., & Fillinger, U. (2023). National prevalence and risk factors for tungiasis in Kenya. Infectious Diseases of Poverty, 12(1), 85. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-023-01131-x
Elson, L., Kamau, J., & Njoroge, B. (2023). Prevalence and distribution of tungiasis across ecological zones in Kenya: A national survey. Kenya Medical Journal, 38(2), 112–128.
Girma, A., & Abdu, I. (2025). Prevalence and risk factors of tungiasis among selected regions of Ethiopia: A meta-analysis. Health Science Reports, 8(9), e71233. https://doi.org/10.1002/hsr2.71233
Girma, T., & Abdu, P. (2025). Tungiasis in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence, risk factors, and intervention outcomes. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 19(1), e0011304.
Houweling, T., Crowell, C., & Brooker, S. (2016). Socio-economic status and neglected tropical diseases: A systematic review of 93 studies. International Journal for Equity in Health, 15(1), 89.
Isabirye, A., Ahumuza, E., Nanyeenya, N., et al. (2025). Epidemiological and socioeconomic insights for jiggers control from a community-driven social innovation project in Eastern Uganda. Discover Public Health, 22, 763. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12982-025-01181-6
Isabirye, M., Nansubuga, S., & Mwebaze, J. (2025). Poverty, housing, and tungiasis in Uganda: A community-based cross-sectional study. African Journal of Public Health, 12(4), 345–362.
Kamau, A., Njenga, J. M., &Muthoka, P. M. (2023). Community perceptions and beliefs about tungiasis infestation: A qualitative study in rural Kenya. Journal of Public Health in Africa, 2023.
Kenya Ministry of Health. (2019). National Policy Guidelines for prevention and control of jigger infestation in Kenya. Ministry of Health, Government of Kenya.
Kiprotich, J., Mwende, F., &Ndung'u, M. (2021). Impact of jigger infestation on health and livelihoods of residents of Kapsara village, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya: A retrospective cohort study. Journal of Parasitology Research, 2021.
Kolaczinski, J. H., Reithinger, R., Worku, D. T., et al. (2008). Risk factors of visceral leishmaniasis in East Africa: A case-control study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 37(2), 344–352.
Mageto, R. M. (2017). Assessment of factors influencing jigger infestation in households with primary school pupils in Karungu, Migori County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, Maseno University).
Maina, A., Mwiti, J., &Njenga, J. M. (2023). Mobile health (mHealth) platforms for community-based control of tungiasis infestation in rural Kenya: A pilot study. Journal of Mobile Technology in Medicine, 2023.
Martha, K., Okello, A., & Ekitavu, B. (2023). A qualitative case study of community experiences with tungiasis in Uganda: Barriers, support, and intervention priorities. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 17(4), e0011523.
Mbewe, P. M., Mwiti, J., &Mumo, R. M. (2021). Water, sanitation and hygiene practices and risk factors for tungiasis infestation in rural Kenya: A case-control study. Journal of Environmental Health Research, 2021.
McNeilly, H., Mutebi, F., Reichert, F., et al. (2025). Reduction of tungiasis prevalence, intensity, and morbidity during a two-year community-based control project in Uganda. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 19(6), e0013149. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0013149
Miller, L., et al. (2020). Housing Conditions and Risk of Tungiasis: A Case-Control Study in South America. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 14(11), e0008897.
Morkve, Å. W., Munkejord, M. C. (2023). Reducing prejudice against children with tungiasis: A qualitative study from Kenya. Societies, 13(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/soc13060139
Morkve, Å. W., Sitienei, J., & Van den Bergh, G. (2023). A qualitative case study of community experiences with Tungiasis in high prevalence villages of Bungoma County, Kenya:“The whole body aches and the jiggers are torturing me!”. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 17(4), e0011304.
Morkve, Å. W., Sitienei, J., & Van den Bergh, G. (2024). Health workers’ and volunteers’ perceptions of jigger control in Kenya. Societies, 14(2), 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc14020028
Morkve, H., Bungoma, C., & Njoroge, P. (2024). Stigma, marginalization, and government support in jigger infestation: Qualitative evidence from Bungoma County, Kenya. Social Science & Medicine, 245, 118–132.
Morkve, H., Ouma, D., & Kamau, S. (2023). Structural determinants of tungiasis in Kenya and Uganda: A comparative analysis of housing, poverty, and stigma. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 41(2), 156–174.
Mumo, R. M., Kipruto, H. E., &Mbewe, P. M. (2021). Policy frameworks for the control of tungiasis infestation in Kenya: An assessment. African Journal of Health Policy Research, 2021.
Mwangi, J. M., Kipruto, H. E., &Choge, J. K. (2023). Epidemiology of tungiasis among children aged 5-14 years in a rural area of Kenya. Journal of Tropical Medicine, 2023.
Mwende, F., Mwiti, J., &Mbewe, P. M. (2022). Culturally appropriate health education materials for the control of tungiasis infestation in Kenya: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, 2022.
Njenga, J. M., Muthoka, P. M., &Ndung'u, M. (2021). Community-led approach to the control of tungiasis infestation in rural Kenya: A case study. Journal of Community Health, 2021.
Nyamweya, N., Chege, M., &Maina, A. (2022). Effectiveness of different control interventions for tungiasis infestation: A systematic review. International Journal of Dermatology and Venereology, 2022.
Obebe, O. O., & Aluko, O. O. (2020). Epidemiology of tungiasis in sub-saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pathogens and global health, 114(7), 360–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/20477724.2020.1813489
Ochieng, J. O., Kanyina, E. W., &Njenga, J. M. (2022). Socio-economic determinants of tungiasis infestation among residents of a rural area in Kenya. Journal of Health Economics and Outcomes Research, 2022.
Okumu, Thomas Opiyo (2024) The Burden of Tungiasis (Jiggers’ Infestation) and Its Impact on Rural Vulnerable Populations in Kenya: A Comprehensive Health Assessment on Muranga County, Kenya. International Journal of TROPICAL DISEASE & Health, 45 (4). pp. 46-52. ISSN 2278-1005
Ouma, D., Mørkve, H., & Kamau, S. (2026). Age-specific vulnerability to tungiasis in East Africa: A cross-sectional analysis of children and elderly populations. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 31(3), 289–304.
Panafrican Medical Journal. (2021). Assessment of the role played by domestic animals in jigger infection among residents of Kandara sub-county, Kenya. Panafrican Medical Journal, 39, 231.
Piyo, R. (2024). Tungiasis in Murang'a County, Kenya: Prevalence, risk factors, and community responses [Master's thesis, Kenyatta University]. Kenyatta University Repository.
Piyo, T. (2024). The burden of tungiasis (jiggers’ infestation) and its impact on rural vulnerable populations in Kenya: A comprehensive health assessment on Muranga County, Kenya. International Journal of Tropical Disease & Health, 45(4), 46–52. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijtdh/2024/v45i41527
Puak University. (2022). Determinants of jigger infestation: Knowledge, attitude and practices among household members in Kilifi County, Kenya [Doctoral dissertation]. Puak University ELibrary.
Alwan, F., Maina, A., & Chege, M. (2023). Socio-cultural factors influencing the control of tungiasis infestation in rural Kenya: A qualitative study. Journal of Health Education Research & Development, 2023.
Amadi, P. O., Eze, C. N., & Okafor, C. L. (2022). Poverty and parasitic infestations: A cross-sectional study of tungiasis in rural Nigeria. Journal of Tropical Medicine, 15(3), 234–249.
Anyaele, O., &Enwemiwe, C. (2021). Socio-Economic Determinants of Jigger Infestation in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Cross-Sectional Study. BMC Public Health, 21, 1-10.
Chege, M., Njenga, J. M., &Mwiti, J. (2020). Readiness of healthcare facilities to manage cases of tungiasis infestation in rural Kenya: A facility-based assessment. Journal of Community Health Systems, 2020.
Choge, J. K., Kiprotich, J., &Ndung'u, M. (2020). Economic burden of tungiasis on households in rural Kenya: A cross-sectional study. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 2020.
Dvorak, G. J., Juma, R. O., & Muthoka, P. M. (2022). Emerging challenges in the control of tungiasis: A global perspective. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 2022.
Elson, L., Kamau, C., Koech, S., Muthama, &Fillinger, U. (2023). National prevalence and risk factors for tungiasis in Kenya. Infectious Diseases of Poverty, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-023-01131-x
Elson, L., Kamau, C., Koech, S., Muthama, C., & Fillinger, U. (2024). Tungiasis among children in Kenya is associated with poor nutrition status, absenteeism, poor school performance and high impact on quality of life. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 18(5). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0011800
Elson, L., Kamau, C., Koech, S., Muthama, C., Gachomba, G., Sinoti, E., Chondo, E., Mburu, E., Wakio, M., Lore, J., Maia, M., Adetifa, I., Orindi, B., Bejon, P., & Fillinger, U. (2023). National prevalence and risk factors for tungiasis in Kenya. Infectious Diseases of Poverty, 12(1), 85. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-023-01131-x
Elson, L., Kamau, J., & Njoroge, B. (2023). Prevalence and distribution of tungiasis across ecological zones in Kenya: A national survey. Kenya Medical Journal, 38(2), 112–128.
Girma, A., & Abdu, I. (2025). Prevalence and risk factors of tungiasis among selected regions of Ethiopia: A meta-analysis. Health Science Reports, 8(9), e71233. https://doi.org/10.1002/hsr2.71233
Girma, T., & Abdu, P. (2025). Tungiasis in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence, risk factors, and intervention outcomes. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 19(1), e0011304.
Houweling, T., Crowell, C., & Brooker, S. (2016). Socio-economic status and neglected tropical diseases: A systematic review of 93 studies. International Journal for Equity in Health, 15(1), 89.
Isabirye, A., Ahumuza, E., Nanyeenya, N., et al. (2025). Epidemiological and socioeconomic insights for jiggers control from a community-driven social innovation project in Eastern Uganda. Discover Public Health, 22, 763. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12982-025-01181-6
Isabirye, M., Nansubuga, S., & Mwebaze, J. (2025). Poverty, housing, and tungiasis in Uganda: A community-based cross-sectional study. African Journal of Public Health, 12(4), 345–362.
Kamau, A., Njenga, J. M., &Muthoka, P. M. (2023). Community perceptions and beliefs about tungiasis infestation: A qualitative study in rural Kenya. Journal of Public Health in Africa, 2023.
Kenya Ministry of Health. (2019). National Policy Guidelines for prevention and control of jigger infestation in Kenya. Ministry of Health, Government of Kenya.
Kiprotich, J., Mwende, F., &Ndung'u, M. (2021). Impact of jigger infestation on health and livelihoods of residents of Kapsara village, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya: A retrospective cohort study. Journal of Parasitology Research, 2021.
Kolaczinski, J. H., Reithinger, R., Worku, D. T., et al. (2008). Risk factors of visceral leishmaniasis in East Africa: A case-control study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 37(2), 344–352.
Mageto, R. M. (2017). Assessment of factors influencing jigger infestation in households with primary school pupils in Karungu, Migori County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, Maseno University).
Maina, A., Mwiti, J., &Njenga, J. M. (2023). Mobile health (mHealth) platforms for community-based control of tungiasis infestation in rural Kenya: A pilot study. Journal of Mobile Technology in Medicine, 2023.
Martha, K., Okello, A., & Ekitavu, B. (2023). A qualitative case study of community experiences with tungiasis in Uganda: Barriers, support, and intervention priorities. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 17(4), e0011523.
Mbewe, P. M., Mwiti, J., &Mumo, R. M. (2021). Water, sanitation and hygiene practices and risk factors for tungiasis infestation in rural Kenya: A case-control study. Journal of Environmental Health Research, 2021.
McNeilly, H., Mutebi, F., Reichert, F., et al. (2025). Reduction of tungiasis prevalence, intensity, and morbidity during a two-year community-based control project in Uganda. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 19(6), e0013149. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0013149
Miller, L., et al. (2020). Housing Conditions and Risk of Tungiasis: A Case-Control Study in South America. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 14(11), e0008897.
Morkve, Å. W., Munkejord, M. C. (2023). Reducing prejudice against children with tungiasis: A qualitative study from Kenya. Societies, 13(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/soc13060139
Morkve, Å. W., Sitienei, J., & Van den Bergh, G. (2023). A qualitative case study of community experiences with Tungiasis in high prevalence villages of Bungoma County, Kenya:“The whole body aches and the jiggers are torturing me!”. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 17(4), e0011304.
Morkve, Å. W., Sitienei, J., & Van den Bergh, G. (2024). Health workers’ and volunteers’ perceptions of jigger control in Kenya. Societies, 14(2), 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc14020028
Morkve, H., Bungoma, C., & Njoroge, P. (2024). Stigma, marginalization, and government support in jigger infestation: Qualitative evidence from Bungoma County, Kenya. Social Science & Medicine, 245, 118–132.
Morkve, H., Ouma, D., & Kamau, S. (2023). Structural determinants of tungiasis in Kenya and Uganda: A comparative analysis of housing, poverty, and stigma. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 41(2), 156–174.
Mumo, R. M., Kipruto, H. E., &Mbewe, P. M. (2021). Policy frameworks for the control of tungiasis infestation in Kenya: An assessment. African Journal of Health Policy Research, 2021.
Mwangi, J. M., Kipruto, H. E., &Choge, J. K. (2023). Epidemiology of tungiasis among children aged 5-14 years in a rural area of Kenya. Journal of Tropical Medicine, 2023.
Mwende, F., Mwiti, J., &Mbewe, P. M. (2022). Culturally appropriate health education materials for the control of tungiasis infestation in Kenya: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, 2022.
Njenga, J. M., Muthoka, P. M., &Ndung'u, M. (2021). Community-led approach to the control of tungiasis infestation in rural Kenya: A case study. Journal of Community Health, 2021.
Nyamweya, N., Chege, M., &Maina, A. (2022). Effectiveness of different control interventions for tungiasis infestation: A systematic review. International Journal of Dermatology and Venereology, 2022.
Obebe, O. O., & Aluko, O. O. (2020). Epidemiology of tungiasis in sub-saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pathogens and global health, 114(7), 360–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/20477724.2020.1813489
Ochieng, J. O., Kanyina, E. W., &Njenga, J. M. (2022). Socio-economic determinants of tungiasis infestation among residents of a rural area in Kenya. Journal of Health Economics and Outcomes Research, 2022.
Okumu, Thomas Opiyo (2024) The Burden of Tungiasis (Jiggers’ Infestation) and Its Impact on Rural Vulnerable Populations in Kenya: A Comprehensive Health Assessment on Muranga County, Kenya. International Journal of TROPICAL DISEASE & Health, 45 (4). pp. 46-52. ISSN 2278-1005
Ouma, D., Mørkve, H., & Kamau, S. (2026). Age-specific vulnerability to tungiasis in East Africa: A cross-sectional analysis of children and elderly populations. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 31(3), 289–304.
Panafrican Medical Journal. (2021). Assessment of the role played by domestic animals in jigger infection among residents of Kandara sub-county, Kenya. Panafrican Medical Journal, 39, 231.
Piyo, R. (2024). Tungiasis in Murang'a County, Kenya: Prevalence, risk factors, and community responses [Master's thesis, Kenyatta University]. Kenyatta University Repository.
Piyo, T. (2024). The burden of tungiasis (jiggers’ infestation) and its impact on rural vulnerable populations in Kenya: A comprehensive health assessment on Muranga County, Kenya. International Journal of Tropical Disease & Health, 45(4), 46–52. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijtdh/2024/v45i41527
Puak University. (2022). Determinants of jigger infestation: Knowledge, attitude and practices among household members in Kilifi County, Kenya [Doctoral dissertation]. Puak University ELibrary.
