DETERMINANTS OF TOURISM AND TOURISM SUSTAINABILITY IN SAMBURU COUNTY, KENYA
Keywords:
Marketing, Security, Natural Attractions, Infrastructure
Abstract
This research explored sustainable tourism development in Samburu East Sub-County, Kenya and identified key elements that influenced tourism sustainability in the region. The study examined four primary variables that were, marketing, security, natural attractions and infrastructure and how they affected tourism growth and its long-term viability. Recognizing issues such as low domestic tourist participation, dearth of infrastructure, insecurity, and absence of stakeholder alignment, the study showed the significance of sustainable practice in entrenching the region as appealing and resilient to global tourist volatility. In a descriptive study design, the study gathered quantitative and qualitative data from a broad category of stakeholders including government representatives, conservancy personnel, chiefs, and community elders to present a clear indication of Samburu East sub-county's tourism environment. The theoretical frameworks were guided by stakeholder theory with an emphasis on cooperative participation and destination life cycle theory with the assessment of phases of tourism development for facilitating sustainable development. The study's findings were intended to inform policy recommendations for the sub-county government of Samburu East and other stakeholders, supporting targeted infrastructure development, enhanced security measures, and community-based tourism initiatives. The research findings demonstrates that marketing initiatives had a significant positive influence on sustainable tourism with R squared of (0.858) and Beta value of 0.927. Security initiatives had a significant influence at R-squared of 0.853, a high correlation of (R=0.924) and a significant F-statistic. Natural attractions were found to promote sustainable tourism with an R-squared of 0.816 and F-statistic (1167.434). Infrastructure was found to have a significant role with an F-statistic of 723.949 and t-value of 26.906. All the four independent variables had a significant p-value. Thus, the study rejected the entire four hypotheses. The research findings added to the general comprehension of sustainable tourism in Kenya, providing realistic answers towards a harmony between economic development, nature preservation, and cultural conservation. The study also addressed knowledge gaps in tourism sustainability, specifically in rural Kenyan contexts, positioning Samburu East as a model for community-centered and environmentally conscious tourism practices.
References
Adeola, O., & Evans, O. (2019). ICT, infrastructure, and tourism development in Africa. Tourism
Economics, 26(1), 97–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816619827712
Adeola, O., & Evans, O. (2020). ICT, infrastructure, and tourism development in Africa. Tourism Economics, 26(1), 97-114.
Ahmad, R., Nawaz, M. R., Ishaq, M. I., Khan, M. M., & Ashraf, H. A. (2023). Social exchange theory: Systematic review and future directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1015921.
Akama, J. S., & Kieti, D. M. (2007). Tourism and socio-economic development in developing countries: A case study of Mombasa Resort in Kenya. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15(6), 735–748. https://doi.org/10.2167/jost543.0
Alamineh, G. A., Hussein, J. W., Mulu, Y. E., & Taddesse, B. (2023). The negative cultural impact of tourism and its implication on sustainable development in Amhara Regional State. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 10(1), 2224597.
Alebaki, M., Psimouli, M., Kladou, S., & Anastasiadis, F. (2022). Digital Winescape and Online Wine Tourism: Comparative Insights from Crete and Santorini. Sustainability 2022, 14, 8396.
All Africa (2018). Tanzania: National Parks to Get International Certification for Improve
Arana, I., & Leung, S. Y. (2023). Understanding the impact of crime on tourism destinations: Evidence from international tourist arrivals. Tourism Management, 90, 104410.
Bargoret, C. (2019, 01 7). Kenya tourism earnings rise to Sh157 billion as 2018 arrivals cross 2m mark. Business Daily.Retrieved from businessdailyafrica.com: https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/economy/Kenya-tourism-earnings-rise- to-Sh157bn-as-2018-arrivals-cross-2m/3946234-4924636- 15p97f6z/index.html.
Berezina, K., Bilgihan, A., Cobanoglu, C., Okumus, F., & Ozturk, A. B. (2021). The impact of safety and security risk on hotel guests’ booking intentions. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 94, 102868.
Birendra, K. C., Dhungana, A., & Dangi, T. B. (2021). Tourism and the sustainable development goals: Stakeholders' perspectives from Nepal. In Tourism Management Perspectives (Vol. 38, pp. 100-109).
Buhalis, D., & Foerste, M. (2015). SoCoMo marketing for travel and tourism: Empowering co-creation of value. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 4(3), 151–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2015.04.001
Camilleri, M. A., & Camilleri, M. A. (2018). The tourism industry: An overview (pp. 3-27). Springer International Publishing.
Choi, H. S., & Sirakaya-Turk, E. (2022). Understanding the influence of destination sustainability on tourists’ behavioral intentions: The moderating role of promotional events. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 21, 100693.
Christou, E. (2016). Social media in travel, tourism and hospitality. Routledge
Coghlan, A. (2019). An introduction to sustainable tourism. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers.
Cooper, C. (2020). Essentials of tourism (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Council of Governors (2018). Samburu East Sub-County Integrated Development Plan 2017-22.
Dimmer, K. (2018). South African tourism holding steady: Tourists undeterred amid reports of historic water crisis in the country’s second largest city. Africa Renewal.
Francis, K., & Jilo, N. (2021). Preferred social networking app by employees in tourism and hospitality industry in Kenya. Journal of Tourism Management Research, Conscientia Beam, vol. 8(1), pages 48-56.
Fwaya, E. V. O., & Kesa, H. (2018). The fourth industrial revolution: Implications for hotels in South Africa and Kenya. Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal, 66(3), 349–353.
George, R. (2017). Tourist perceptions of crime and safety: The case of Cape Town, South Africa. Anatolia, 28(2), 211–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2017.1293118
Giddy, J. K., & Webb, N. L. (2018). The influence of the environment on adventure tourism: From motivations to experiences. Current Issues in Tourism, 21(18), 2124–2138. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2016.1245715
Gnoth, J., & Matteucci, X. (2021). Cultural tourism and its impact on cultural sustainability. Tourism Management Perspectives, 37, 100810.
GoK. (2020). National Tourism Policy, 2016 on Enhancing Sustainable Tourism in Kenya. Nairobi: Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife.
Government of Kenya. (2020). Third Medium Term Paper 2018-2022.Government Printer.
Gretzel, U., Sigala, M., Xiang, Z., & Koo, C. (2015). Smart tourism: Foundations and developments. Electronic Markets, 25, 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-015-0196-8
Guo, Y., Jiang, J., & Li, S. (2019). A Sustainable Tourism Policy Research Review. Sustainability, 11, 3187; doi:10.3390/su11113187
Hamidi, F., Shams Gharneh, N., & Khajeheian, D. (2019). A conceptual framework for value co-creation in service enterprises (case of tourism agencies). Sustainability, 12(1), 213.
Hefow, A. A., & Njoroge, J. G., (2023). Violent extremism and performance of tourism in Kenya’s Coastal Region. Reviewed Journal of Social Science & Humanities, 4 (1), 438 – 453.
Honey, M. (2008). Ecotourism and sustainable development: Who owns paradise? (2nd ed.). Island Press.
https://devolutionhub.or.ke/resource/samburu-county-integrated-development-plan-2018-2022
https://planning.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Third-Medium-Term-Plan2018-2022.pdf.
Humphreys, M., Stokenberga, A., DappeM., Limi, A., & Hartmann, O. (2019). Port development and competition in East and Southern Africa: prospects and challenges. World Bank Group
Iazzi, A., Pizzi, S., Iaia, L., & Turco, M. (2020). Communicating the stakeholder engagement process: A cross‐country analysis in the tourism sector. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 27(4), 1642-1652.
International Monetary Fund. (2023). Kenya. International Monetary Fund.
Jóźwiak, K., & Żemła, M. (2022). Perception of tourist safety and security: A study of selected European capitals. Tourism Management Perspectives, 39, 100887.
Juma, L. O., Bakos, I. M., Juma, D. O., & Khademi-Vidra, A. (2022). Mobile-application usage potential for nature interpretation and visitor management at Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya; wildlife viewers’ perspectives. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 43(3), 1163–1174.
Karani, T. W. (2020). Effects of social media marketing strategies on performance of the Kenyan tourism industry: A survey of tourism travel agencies in Nairobi County [MSc Thesis]. http://erepo.usiu.ac.ke/11732/6876
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2019). 2019 Kenya population and housing census volume I: Population by county and sub-county. Kenya Tourism Agenda Government of Kenya (2018-2022) Nairobi: Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife. KNBS (2019).
Kenya Tourism Board. (2017). Tembea Kenya Travel Fest.KTB.
Kimeria, C. (2019, September 28). Africa’s tourism industry is now the second fastest growing in the world. Quartz.
Koch, M. (2022). Ukraine: What Russia’s war means for the global travel industry. Deutsche Welle.
Kotler, P., Bowen, J. T., & Makens, J. C. (2017). Marketing for hospitality and tourism (7th ed.). Pearson Education.
Kovari, I., & Zimanyi, K. (2016). Safety and security in the age of global tourism (The changing role and conception of safety and security in tourism). Applied Studies in Agribusiness and Commerce, 10(1-2), 59–61. https://doi.org/10.19041/APSTRACT/2016/1-2/9
Li, X., Kim, J. S., & Lee, T. J. (2021). Collaboration for community-based cultural sustainability in island tourism development: A case in Korea. Sustainability, 13(13), 7306.
Liu, A., Song, H., Li, X., & Witt, S. F. (2019). Tourism development and hotel competitiveness in China: A comparison of Hong Kong, Macau, and Guangdong province. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 27(7), 733-753.
Martín Martín, J. M., Guaita Martínez, J. M., & Salinas Fernández, J. A. (2018). An analysis of the factors behind the citizen’s attitude of rejection towards tourism in a context of over tourism and economic dependence on this activity. Sustainability, 10(8), 2851.
Mason, P., Lee, D., & Kim, W. G. (2021). Host community residents’ attitudes toward cultural tourism and sustainable development. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 20, 100544.
Meyoki, N. L., & Kavindah, L. (2019). Exploration of Adoption of Information Communication Technology by Tourist Camps in Maasai Mara, Narok County, Kenya. International Journal of Current Aspects, 3(VI), 291–308.
Nguyen, Q.H. (2021). Impact of Investment in Tourism Infrastructure Development on Attracting International Visitors: A Nonlinear Panel ARDL Approach Using Vietnam’s Data. Economies, 9, 131.
Njoya, E. T., Efthymiou, M., Nikitas, A., & O’Connell, J.A. (2022). The Effects of Diminished Tourism Arrivals and Expenditures Caused by Terrorism and Political Unrest on the Kenyan Economy. Economies, 10: 191.
Northern Rangelands Trust. (2024). Northern Rangelands Trust. NRT.
Novelli, M., Morgan, N., & Nibigira, C. (2012). Tourism in a post-conflict situation of fragility. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(3), 1446–1469.
NRT-Kenya (2021). Northern Kenya Tourism strategic plan 2021. https://www.nrt-kenya.org/s/Tourism-Development-Strategy-for-Northern-Kenya-draft-as-of-01-Feb-2021.docx
Nyasuguta, F. (2019, April 16). Kenya ranked third largest tourism economy in SubSaharan Africa. Retrieved May 28, 2020, from www.the-star.co.ke: https://www.the-star.co.ke/business/kenya/2019-04-16-kenya-ranked-thirdlargest-tourism-economy-in-sub-saharan-africa/.
Nyaupane, G., & Timothy, D. J. (2022). Tourism and Development in the Himalaya. Routledge.
Ogembo, A. E. (2018). The Role of MICE Tourism in Promoting Sustainable Development in Africa. A Case Study of Kenya. Nairobi.
Park, E., Lee, T. J., & Lee, T. J. (2022). The impact of perceived cultural heritage authenticity on tourists' revisit intention: Moderating role of cultural awareness. Sustainability, 14(1), 169.
Pforr, C., Li, X., & Bohdanowicz, P. (2022). Balancing authenticity and commercialization: Local communities’ perspectives on sustainable tourism development in World Heritage Sites. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 30(1), 133-152.
Reihanian, A., Mahmood, N. Z. B., Kahrom, E., & Hin, T. W. (2012). Sustainable tourism development strategy by SWOT analysis: Boujagh National Park, Iran. Tourism management perspectives, 4, 223-228.
Richards, G. (2018). Cultural tourism: A review of recent research and trends. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights, 1(3), 119–139. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTI-01-2018-0003
Richards, G. (2020). Sustainable cultural tourism: Small islands and indigenous peoples. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(10), 1497-1515.
Ritchie, J. R. B., & Crouch, G. I. (2003). The competitive destination: A sustainable tourism perspective. CABI Publishing.
Rogerson, C. M., & Rogerson, J. M. (2021). African tourism in uncertain times: COVID-19 research progress. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 38(4), 1026–1032. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.38406-740
Roman, M., Roman, M., Grzegorzewska, E., Pietrzak, P., & Roman, K. (2022). Influence of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Tourism in European Countries: Cluster Analysis Findings. Sustainability, 14(3), 1602.
Roxas, F. Y., Rivera, J. R., & Gutierrez, E. M. (2020). Mapping stakeholders’ roles in governing sustainable tourism destinations. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 45, 387-398.
Shehzad, K., Liu, X., Rauf, A., Arif, M., Mazhar, S., Sohail, N., & Amin, W. (2019). Revolutionizing tourism development in China: An effective role of ICT and Western Silk Road project. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 24(9), 965-977.
Sigala, M., & Gretzel, U. (2019). Advances in social media for travel, tourism and hospitality: New perspectives, practice and cases. Routledge.
Smith, M. K., & Robinson, M. (2006). Cultural tourism in a changing world. Channel View Publications.
Sotiriadis, M. D., & Shen, X. (2021). Partnerships for sustainable tourism development: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(5), 752-771.
Spencer, A. J., & McBean, L. M. (2020). Alignment of tourism investment to the SDGs in Jamaica: An exploratory study. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 12(3), 261-274.
Spring, J. (2023). Nature-based tourism and guided wildlife tours: designing wildlife tour experiences that optimise sustainable learning opportunities. Journal of Ecotourism, 22(1), 187-207.
Stone, M. T., & Nyaupane, G. P. (2016). Protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods linkages: A comprehensive analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 24(5), 673–693. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1072207
Sulistyadi, Y., Eddyono, F., & Entas, D. (2019). Indikator perencanaan pengembangan pariwisata berkelanjutan. Anugrah Utama Raharja.
Suprina, R., Gantina, D., Haryono, J., Gaffar, V., & Wulantika, L. (2023). Exploring tourist loyalty in metropolitan city of Indonesia. Journal of Eastern European and Central Asian Research (JEECAR), 10(4), 580–588.
Tarlow, P. E. (2014). Tourism security: Strategies for effectively managing travel risk and safety. Elsevier.
Teles da Mota, V., & Pickering, C. (2020). Using social media to assess nature-based tourism: Current research and future trends. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 30, 100295.
Timothy, D. J., & Nyaupane, G. P. (2009). Cultural heritage and tourism in the developing world: A regional perspective. Routledge.
Tourism Research Institute. (2018). Kenya Tourism Sector Performance Report 2018. TRI. Tourism.
UNEP-WCMC (2019). Protected Area Profile for United Republic of Tanzania: World Database of Protected Areas. WCMC.
United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2020). Global Report on Sustainable Tourism: Vol 1. United Nations World Tourism Organization.
UNWTO, O. S. (2022). Impact of the Russian offensive in Ukraine on international tourism. URL: https://www. unwto. org/impact-russian-offensivein-ukraine-on-tourism (дата звернення: 08.11. 2022).
UNWTO. (2018). UNWTO Tourism Highlights. International Tourism Trends 2017. UNWTO
UNWTO. (2019a, 03 02). International arrivals by world region. Retrieved from Our World In Data: UNWTO.
UNWTO. (2019b). Overtourism’?: Understanding and Managing Urban Tourism Growth beyond Perceptions. Geneva: UNWTO.
UNWTO. (2019c, 05 13). POLICY AND DESTINATION MANAGEMENT. UNWTO.
UNWTO. (2020). Growth of International Tourist Arrivals to Outpace Economy. World Tourism Barometer, 18(1), 1-6.
Varelas, S., Karvela, P., & Georgopoulos, N. (2021). The impact of information technology and sustainable strategies in hotel branding, Evidence from the Greek environment. Sustainability, 13(15), 8543.
Volo, S. (2023). Marketing Sustainable Tourism in the Digital Age: Opportunities and Challenges. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights, 6(2), 278-292.
Waldemar, C., & Dajer, N. (2023). Natural Resources and Sustainable Tourism: Opportunities in Kroczyce Commune, Poland. Sustainability, 16(1), 7.
Walters, G., Wallin, A., & Hartley, N. (2019). The threat of terrorism and tourist choice behavior. Journal of travel research, 58(3), 370-382.
Wink. (2019). Mombasa (Kenya) - Wink Travel Guide. Wink.
Wong, C. H., & Polonsky, M. J. (2023). Fostering cultural awareness in tourism: An exploratory study of tourist-host interactions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 31(1), 64-83.
World Travel Tourism Council. (2018). Travel and Tourism Economic Impact Kenya 2018.WTTC.
WTTC (2019). Kenya Travel & Tourism exceeding global and regional levels in 2018. WTTC
WTTC. (2019). Travel & Tourism Global Economic Impact & Trends 2019. World. London: World Travel & Tourism Council’s.
Wulung, S. R. P., Adriani, Y. A. N. I., Brahmantyo, B. U. D. I., Rosydie, A. R. I. E. F., & Rosyidie, A. (2021). Spatial model planning for ecotourism destinations. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 16(3), 1883-1897.
Yu, J., Safarov, B., Yi, L., Buzrukova, M., Janzakov, B. (2023). The Adaptive Evolution of Cultural Ecosystems along the Silk Road and Cultural Tourism Heritage: A Case Study of 22Cultural Sites on the Chinese Section of the Silk Road World Heritage. Sustainability, 15, 2465.
Zhang, J., Li, X., & Zhang, L. (2022). Influence of emergency response time on tourist safety perception: A case study of Beijing. Tourism Management, 89, 104439.
Economics, 26(1), 97–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816619827712
Adeola, O., & Evans, O. (2020). ICT, infrastructure, and tourism development in Africa. Tourism Economics, 26(1), 97-114.
Ahmad, R., Nawaz, M. R., Ishaq, M. I., Khan, M. M., & Ashraf, H. A. (2023). Social exchange theory: Systematic review and future directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1015921.
Akama, J. S., & Kieti, D. M. (2007). Tourism and socio-economic development in developing countries: A case study of Mombasa Resort in Kenya. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15(6), 735–748. https://doi.org/10.2167/jost543.0
Alamineh, G. A., Hussein, J. W., Mulu, Y. E., & Taddesse, B. (2023). The negative cultural impact of tourism and its implication on sustainable development in Amhara Regional State. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 10(1), 2224597.
Alebaki, M., Psimouli, M., Kladou, S., & Anastasiadis, F. (2022). Digital Winescape and Online Wine Tourism: Comparative Insights from Crete and Santorini. Sustainability 2022, 14, 8396.
All Africa (2018). Tanzania: National Parks to Get International Certification for Improve
Arana, I., & Leung, S. Y. (2023). Understanding the impact of crime on tourism destinations: Evidence from international tourist arrivals. Tourism Management, 90, 104410.
Bargoret, C. (2019, 01 7). Kenya tourism earnings rise to Sh157 billion as 2018 arrivals cross 2m mark. Business Daily.Retrieved from businessdailyafrica.com: https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/economy/Kenya-tourism-earnings-rise- to-Sh157bn-as-2018-arrivals-cross-2m/3946234-4924636- 15p97f6z/index.html.
Berezina, K., Bilgihan, A., Cobanoglu, C., Okumus, F., & Ozturk, A. B. (2021). The impact of safety and security risk on hotel guests’ booking intentions. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 94, 102868.
Birendra, K. C., Dhungana, A., & Dangi, T. B. (2021). Tourism and the sustainable development goals: Stakeholders' perspectives from Nepal. In Tourism Management Perspectives (Vol. 38, pp. 100-109).
Buhalis, D., & Foerste, M. (2015). SoCoMo marketing for travel and tourism: Empowering co-creation of value. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 4(3), 151–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2015.04.001
Camilleri, M. A., & Camilleri, M. A. (2018). The tourism industry: An overview (pp. 3-27). Springer International Publishing.
Choi, H. S., & Sirakaya-Turk, E. (2022). Understanding the influence of destination sustainability on tourists’ behavioral intentions: The moderating role of promotional events. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 21, 100693.
Christou, E. (2016). Social media in travel, tourism and hospitality. Routledge
Coghlan, A. (2019). An introduction to sustainable tourism. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers.
Cooper, C. (2020). Essentials of tourism (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Council of Governors (2018). Samburu East Sub-County Integrated Development Plan 2017-22.
Dimmer, K. (2018). South African tourism holding steady: Tourists undeterred amid reports of historic water crisis in the country’s second largest city. Africa Renewal.
Francis, K., & Jilo, N. (2021). Preferred social networking app by employees in tourism and hospitality industry in Kenya. Journal of Tourism Management Research, Conscientia Beam, vol. 8(1), pages 48-56.
Fwaya, E. V. O., & Kesa, H. (2018). The fourth industrial revolution: Implications for hotels in South Africa and Kenya. Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal, 66(3), 349–353.
George, R. (2017). Tourist perceptions of crime and safety: The case of Cape Town, South Africa. Anatolia, 28(2), 211–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2017.1293118
Giddy, J. K., & Webb, N. L. (2018). The influence of the environment on adventure tourism: From motivations to experiences. Current Issues in Tourism, 21(18), 2124–2138. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2016.1245715
Gnoth, J., & Matteucci, X. (2021). Cultural tourism and its impact on cultural sustainability. Tourism Management Perspectives, 37, 100810.
GoK. (2020). National Tourism Policy, 2016 on Enhancing Sustainable Tourism in Kenya. Nairobi: Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife.
Government of Kenya. (2020). Third Medium Term Paper 2018-2022.Government Printer.
Gretzel, U., Sigala, M., Xiang, Z., & Koo, C. (2015). Smart tourism: Foundations and developments. Electronic Markets, 25, 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-015-0196-8
Guo, Y., Jiang, J., & Li, S. (2019). A Sustainable Tourism Policy Research Review. Sustainability, 11, 3187; doi:10.3390/su11113187
Hamidi, F., Shams Gharneh, N., & Khajeheian, D. (2019). A conceptual framework for value co-creation in service enterprises (case of tourism agencies). Sustainability, 12(1), 213.
Hefow, A. A., & Njoroge, J. G., (2023). Violent extremism and performance of tourism in Kenya’s Coastal Region. Reviewed Journal of Social Science & Humanities, 4 (1), 438 – 453.
Honey, M. (2008). Ecotourism and sustainable development: Who owns paradise? (2nd ed.). Island Press.
https://devolutionhub.or.ke/resource/samburu-county-integrated-development-plan-2018-2022
https://planning.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Third-Medium-Term-Plan2018-2022.pdf.
Humphreys, M., Stokenberga, A., DappeM., Limi, A., & Hartmann, O. (2019). Port development and competition in East and Southern Africa: prospects and challenges. World Bank Group
Iazzi, A., Pizzi, S., Iaia, L., & Turco, M. (2020). Communicating the stakeholder engagement process: A cross‐country analysis in the tourism sector. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 27(4), 1642-1652.
International Monetary Fund. (2023). Kenya. International Monetary Fund.
Jóźwiak, K., & Żemła, M. (2022). Perception of tourist safety and security: A study of selected European capitals. Tourism Management Perspectives, 39, 100887.
Juma, L. O., Bakos, I. M., Juma, D. O., & Khademi-Vidra, A. (2022). Mobile-application usage potential for nature interpretation and visitor management at Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya; wildlife viewers’ perspectives. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 43(3), 1163–1174.
Karani, T. W. (2020). Effects of social media marketing strategies on performance of the Kenyan tourism industry: A survey of tourism travel agencies in Nairobi County [MSc Thesis]. http://erepo.usiu.ac.ke/11732/6876
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2019). 2019 Kenya population and housing census volume I: Population by county and sub-county. Kenya Tourism Agenda Government of Kenya (2018-2022) Nairobi: Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife. KNBS (2019).
Kenya Tourism Board. (2017). Tembea Kenya Travel Fest.KTB.
Kimeria, C. (2019, September 28). Africa’s tourism industry is now the second fastest growing in the world. Quartz.
Koch, M. (2022). Ukraine: What Russia’s war means for the global travel industry. Deutsche Welle.
Kotler, P., Bowen, J. T., & Makens, J. C. (2017). Marketing for hospitality and tourism (7th ed.). Pearson Education.
Kovari, I., & Zimanyi, K. (2016). Safety and security in the age of global tourism (The changing role and conception of safety and security in tourism). Applied Studies in Agribusiness and Commerce, 10(1-2), 59–61. https://doi.org/10.19041/APSTRACT/2016/1-2/9
Li, X., Kim, J. S., & Lee, T. J. (2021). Collaboration for community-based cultural sustainability in island tourism development: A case in Korea. Sustainability, 13(13), 7306.
Liu, A., Song, H., Li, X., & Witt, S. F. (2019). Tourism development and hotel competitiveness in China: A comparison of Hong Kong, Macau, and Guangdong province. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 27(7), 733-753.
Martín Martín, J. M., Guaita Martínez, J. M., & Salinas Fernández, J. A. (2018). An analysis of the factors behind the citizen’s attitude of rejection towards tourism in a context of over tourism and economic dependence on this activity. Sustainability, 10(8), 2851.
Mason, P., Lee, D., & Kim, W. G. (2021). Host community residents’ attitudes toward cultural tourism and sustainable development. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 20, 100544.
Meyoki, N. L., & Kavindah, L. (2019). Exploration of Adoption of Information Communication Technology by Tourist Camps in Maasai Mara, Narok County, Kenya. International Journal of Current Aspects, 3(VI), 291–308.
Nguyen, Q.H. (2021). Impact of Investment in Tourism Infrastructure Development on Attracting International Visitors: A Nonlinear Panel ARDL Approach Using Vietnam’s Data. Economies, 9, 131.
Njoya, E. T., Efthymiou, M., Nikitas, A., & O’Connell, J.A. (2022). The Effects of Diminished Tourism Arrivals and Expenditures Caused by Terrorism and Political Unrest on the Kenyan Economy. Economies, 10: 191.
Northern Rangelands Trust. (2024). Northern Rangelands Trust. NRT.
Novelli, M., Morgan, N., & Nibigira, C. (2012). Tourism in a post-conflict situation of fragility. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(3), 1446–1469.
NRT-Kenya (2021). Northern Kenya Tourism strategic plan 2021. https://www.nrt-kenya.org/s/Tourism-Development-Strategy-for-Northern-Kenya-draft-as-of-01-Feb-2021.docx
Nyasuguta, F. (2019, April 16). Kenya ranked third largest tourism economy in SubSaharan Africa. Retrieved May 28, 2020, from www.the-star.co.ke: https://www.the-star.co.ke/business/kenya/2019-04-16-kenya-ranked-thirdlargest-tourism-economy-in-sub-saharan-africa/.
Nyaupane, G., & Timothy, D. J. (2022). Tourism and Development in the Himalaya. Routledge.
Ogembo, A. E. (2018). The Role of MICE Tourism in Promoting Sustainable Development in Africa. A Case Study of Kenya. Nairobi.
Park, E., Lee, T. J., & Lee, T. J. (2022). The impact of perceived cultural heritage authenticity on tourists' revisit intention: Moderating role of cultural awareness. Sustainability, 14(1), 169.
Pforr, C., Li, X., & Bohdanowicz, P. (2022). Balancing authenticity and commercialization: Local communities’ perspectives on sustainable tourism development in World Heritage Sites. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 30(1), 133-152.
Reihanian, A., Mahmood, N. Z. B., Kahrom, E., & Hin, T. W. (2012). Sustainable tourism development strategy by SWOT analysis: Boujagh National Park, Iran. Tourism management perspectives, 4, 223-228.
Richards, G. (2018). Cultural tourism: A review of recent research and trends. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights, 1(3), 119–139. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTI-01-2018-0003
Richards, G. (2020). Sustainable cultural tourism: Small islands and indigenous peoples. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(10), 1497-1515.
Ritchie, J. R. B., & Crouch, G. I. (2003). The competitive destination: A sustainable tourism perspective. CABI Publishing.
Rogerson, C. M., & Rogerson, J. M. (2021). African tourism in uncertain times: COVID-19 research progress. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 38(4), 1026–1032. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.38406-740
Roman, M., Roman, M., Grzegorzewska, E., Pietrzak, P., & Roman, K. (2022). Influence of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Tourism in European Countries: Cluster Analysis Findings. Sustainability, 14(3), 1602.
Roxas, F. Y., Rivera, J. R., & Gutierrez, E. M. (2020). Mapping stakeholders’ roles in governing sustainable tourism destinations. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 45, 387-398.
Shehzad, K., Liu, X., Rauf, A., Arif, M., Mazhar, S., Sohail, N., & Amin, W. (2019). Revolutionizing tourism development in China: An effective role of ICT and Western Silk Road project. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 24(9), 965-977.
Sigala, M., & Gretzel, U. (2019). Advances in social media for travel, tourism and hospitality: New perspectives, practice and cases. Routledge.
Smith, M. K., & Robinson, M. (2006). Cultural tourism in a changing world. Channel View Publications.
Sotiriadis, M. D., & Shen, X. (2021). Partnerships for sustainable tourism development: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(5), 752-771.
Spencer, A. J., & McBean, L. M. (2020). Alignment of tourism investment to the SDGs in Jamaica: An exploratory study. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 12(3), 261-274.
Spring, J. (2023). Nature-based tourism and guided wildlife tours: designing wildlife tour experiences that optimise sustainable learning opportunities. Journal of Ecotourism, 22(1), 187-207.
Stone, M. T., & Nyaupane, G. P. (2016). Protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods linkages: A comprehensive analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 24(5), 673–693. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1072207
Sulistyadi, Y., Eddyono, F., & Entas, D. (2019). Indikator perencanaan pengembangan pariwisata berkelanjutan. Anugrah Utama Raharja.
Suprina, R., Gantina, D., Haryono, J., Gaffar, V., & Wulantika, L. (2023). Exploring tourist loyalty in metropolitan city of Indonesia. Journal of Eastern European and Central Asian Research (JEECAR), 10(4), 580–588.
Tarlow, P. E. (2014). Tourism security: Strategies for effectively managing travel risk and safety. Elsevier.
Teles da Mota, V., & Pickering, C. (2020). Using social media to assess nature-based tourism: Current research and future trends. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 30, 100295.
Timothy, D. J., & Nyaupane, G. P. (2009). Cultural heritage and tourism in the developing world: A regional perspective. Routledge.
Tourism Research Institute. (2018). Kenya Tourism Sector Performance Report 2018. TRI. Tourism.
UNEP-WCMC (2019). Protected Area Profile for United Republic of Tanzania: World Database of Protected Areas. WCMC.
United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2020). Global Report on Sustainable Tourism: Vol 1. United Nations World Tourism Organization.
UNWTO, O. S. (2022). Impact of the Russian offensive in Ukraine on international tourism. URL: https://www. unwto. org/impact-russian-offensivein-ukraine-on-tourism (дата звернення: 08.11. 2022).
UNWTO. (2018). UNWTO Tourism Highlights. International Tourism Trends 2017. UNWTO
UNWTO. (2019a, 03 02). International arrivals by world region. Retrieved from Our World In Data: UNWTO.
UNWTO. (2019b). Overtourism’?: Understanding and Managing Urban Tourism Growth beyond Perceptions. Geneva: UNWTO.
UNWTO. (2019c, 05 13). POLICY AND DESTINATION MANAGEMENT. UNWTO.
UNWTO. (2020). Growth of International Tourist Arrivals to Outpace Economy. World Tourism Barometer, 18(1), 1-6.
Varelas, S., Karvela, P., & Georgopoulos, N. (2021). The impact of information technology and sustainable strategies in hotel branding, Evidence from the Greek environment. Sustainability, 13(15), 8543.
Volo, S. (2023). Marketing Sustainable Tourism in the Digital Age: Opportunities and Challenges. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights, 6(2), 278-292.
Waldemar, C., & Dajer, N. (2023). Natural Resources and Sustainable Tourism: Opportunities in Kroczyce Commune, Poland. Sustainability, 16(1), 7.
Walters, G., Wallin, A., & Hartley, N. (2019). The threat of terrorism and tourist choice behavior. Journal of travel research, 58(3), 370-382.
Wink. (2019). Mombasa (Kenya) - Wink Travel Guide. Wink.
Wong, C. H., & Polonsky, M. J. (2023). Fostering cultural awareness in tourism: An exploratory study of tourist-host interactions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 31(1), 64-83.
World Travel Tourism Council. (2018). Travel and Tourism Economic Impact Kenya 2018.WTTC.
WTTC (2019). Kenya Travel & Tourism exceeding global and regional levels in 2018. WTTC
WTTC. (2019). Travel & Tourism Global Economic Impact & Trends 2019. World. London: World Travel & Tourism Council’s.
Wulung, S. R. P., Adriani, Y. A. N. I., Brahmantyo, B. U. D. I., Rosydie, A. R. I. E. F., & Rosyidie, A. (2021). Spatial model planning for ecotourism destinations. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 16(3), 1883-1897.
Yu, J., Safarov, B., Yi, L., Buzrukova, M., Janzakov, B. (2023). The Adaptive Evolution of Cultural Ecosystems along the Silk Road and Cultural Tourism Heritage: A Case Study of 22Cultural Sites on the Chinese Section of the Silk Road World Heritage. Sustainability, 15, 2465.
Zhang, J., Li, X., & Zhang, L. (2022). Influence of emergency response time on tourist safety perception: A case study of Beijing. Tourism Management, 89, 104439.
