SOCIAL-CULTURAL FACTORS AND WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN ELECTIVE POLITICS IN NAIROBI CITY COUNTY, KENYA
Keywords:
Cultural Norms, Educational Attainment, Gender Stereotypes, Religious Beliefs
Abstract
This study investigated the impact of cultural norms and traditions on educational attainment, evaluate the effects of gender stereotypes, and ascertain the influence of religious beliefs on women's participation in electoral politics in Nairobi City County. Descriptive research design was used in this research, targeting 6 Women MCAs, 2 Female MPs in Nairobi City County, 1 Women Rep and 33 Kenya Women Parliamentary Association (KEWOPA). The study was anchored on the social role and the cultural norms theories. Primary data was unruffled using structured questionnaire and interview guide. Descriptive statistics utilized the mean and standard deviation, whereas inferential statistics will employ regression and correlation models, along with Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Fisher’s test. The analysis of qualitative data was conducted through content analysis. The study presented the data analysis through frequency tables, percentages, pie charts, bar graphs, and the resulting regression model. Anonymity, confidentiality and informed consent was upheld and ensured to conform with the ethical considerations for the research. This study concluded that socio-cultural factors significantly influence women's participation in elective politics in Nairobi City County, acting as both formidable barriers and, at times, subtle enablers. While education emerges as a powerful tool that empowers women, enhances their confidence, and provides essential skills for political engagement, it does not entirely insulate them from the pervasive negative impacts of cultural norms and deeply entrenched gender stereotypes. Furthermore, religious beliefs present a mixed influence; while individual faith can be a source of personal empowerment, community interpretations and the actions of religious leaders can either encourage or subtly hinder women's political ambitions. The Ministry of Education should integrate comprehensive civic education into curricula from early stages, emphasizing gender equality in leadership and celebrating women's political achievements to normalize their roles. Future research should delve deeper into how various socio-cultural factors intersect, for example, how ethnicity and marital status combine with gender to create unique political pathways for women in Nairobi.
References
Achieng, S., & Kinyanjui, P. (2022). Educational Attainment and Women's Leadership Capacities in Kenyan Public Service. Journal of Public Administration and Governance, 52(4), 1544-1563
Adamu, R. (2023). Women participation in Nigerian politics: challenges and prospects to Nigerian democracy. International Journal of Humanity Studies (Ijhs), 6(2), 301-314. https://doi.org/10.24071/ijhs.v6i2.5295
Aderayo, A. (2022). Political parties and women‘s participation in politics in west Africa. Revista Feminismos, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.9771/rf.v9i2.47653
Ahn, S., Kim, J., & Kang, W. (2019). Low Female Political Representation in the US: An Institution-Based Explanation. Journal of International and Area Studies, 26(1), 65–88. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26909953
Akindele. A & Dunmade, E. (2020). The role of gender and religion on women participation in decision making process in Nigeria.
Ali, S.A. and Noah, S. (2022). The Effect of Culture on Women’s Participation in Political Leadership in Mogadishu, Federal Republic of Somalia. Open Access Library Journal, 9, 1-14. doi: 10.4236/oalib.1109329.
Anzia, S. F. and Bernhard, R. (2022). Gender stereotyping and the electoral success of women candidates: new evidence from local elections in the United States. British Journal of Political Science, 52(4), 1544-1563. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007123421000570
Atu. O., Odeh. E., Odibo.M., Agbo. C (2019). Gender inequality and women participation in governance in l,Enugu state: an evaluation from 2007-2011. Journal of Social Sciences. Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019
Bonikwowka, A. (2022). Who are Canada’s legislators? Characteristics and gender gaps among members of legislative bodies. Economic and Social Reports
Buchanan, I. (2024). Women in politics and public life. House of Commons Library.
Burchi, F. and Singh, K. (2020). Women’s political representation and educational attainments: a district-level analysis in India. Journal of South Asian Development, 15(1), 7-33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973174120913722
Chege, S. W., & Ochieng, E. O. (2022). Changing Perceptions of Women in Leadership Among Traditional Leaders in Kenya. African Journal of Political Science, 52(4), 1544-1563
Chimwe.E and Chinonso.M. (20233). Socio-cultural values and women political participation in Nigeria.
Devroe, R., & Wauters, B. (2018). Political Gender Stereotypes in a List-PR System with a High Share of Women MPs: Competent Men versus Leftist Women? Political Research Quarterly, 71(4), 788–800. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26600628
Dolan, K. and Lynch, T. (2016). The impact of gender stereotypes on voting for women candidates by level and type of office. Politics &Amp; Gender, 12(03), 573-595. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1743923x16000246
Fahrati, E. (2023). The power of social norms: exploring the influence of cultural factors on economic decision-making. West Science Interdisciplinary Studies, 1(6), 248-257. https://doi.org/10.58812/wsis.v1i6.97
Fischer, R., Karl, J., & Fischer, M. (2019). Retracted: norms across cultures: a cross-cultural meta-analysis of norms effects in the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 50(10), 1112-1126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022119846409
Gitau, M., & Njoroge, K. (2022). The Burden of Tradition: Gender Roles and Political Disengagement in Kenyan Women. East African Political Review, 52(4), 1544-1563
Guyo, S., & Cheboi, J. (2022). Marital Status and Women's Political Candidacy in Kenya: An Exploration of Cultural Barriers. International Journal of Gender and Development, 52(4), 1544 1563
Inter-Parliamentary Union (2019). Equality in politics: A survey of men and women in parliaments.
Jang, S. J., Brown, B. M., Witvliet, C. v., Leman, J., Johnson, B. R., & Bradshaw, M. (2023). Explaining the relationship between religiosity and political participation: the mediating roles of transcendent accountability and religiopolitical awareness. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 62(3), 549-579. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12843
Kagure, A. N. (2023). Negotiated Democracy and the Marginalization of Women in Kenyan Politics. Journal of African Elections, 52(4), 1544-1563
Kamau, P., & Ndung'u, S. (2021). Traditional Leadership and the Barriers to Women's Political Participation in Rural Kenya. Journal of Leadership and Development, 52(4), 1544-1563
Kariuki, P., & Njeru, L. (2021). The 'Place' of Women: Gender Stereotypes and Political Space in Urban Kenya. Journal of Gender Studies in Africa, 52(4), 1544-1563
Khadija, F., & Aisha, H. (2023). The Dual Burden: Family Responsibilities and Women's Political Careers in East Africa. Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 52(4), 1544-1563
Kilonzo, L. M., & Nzomo, M. (2023). Fostering Support: The Role of Community Leaders in Promoting Women's Political Engagement in Kenya. African Studies Review, 52(4), 1544-1563
Kimani, J., & Kariuki, L. (2021). Education as a Catalyst: Empowering Women for Political Leadership in Kenya. Journal of Gender and Development in Africa, 52(4), 1544-1563
Kisia, J., & Muriuki, R. (2021). Patriarchal Structures and Women's Political Representation in Kenya: A Critical Analysis. Journal of Gender and Development in Africa, 52(4), 1544-1563
Koriri, G, Amung, H. (2021). Women’s Participation in Governance and Political Processes in Kenya: Threats and Proposed Remedies.IARS' International Research Journal, vol. 11, núm. 2, pp. 46-54, 2021
Liu, R. W., Lapinski, M. K., Kerr, J. M., Zhao, J., Bum, T., & Lü, Z. (2022). Culture and social norms: development and application of a model for culturally contextualized communication measurement (mc3m). Frontiers in Communication, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2021.770513
Maguire. S. (2018). Barriers to Women Entering Parliament and Local Government. IPR Report 2028.
Mkandawire, T., & Chikoto, T. (2020). Cultural Norms, Patriarchy, and Women's Political Participation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of African Studies, 52(4), 1544-1563
Mlambo, C. and Kapingura, F. M. (2019). Factors influencing women political participation: the case of the sadc region. Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2019.1681048
Mugambi, F., & Okello, D. (2023). Political Literacy and Women's Participation in Governance in Kenya. African Journal of Civic Education, 52(4), 1544-1563
Muriithi, J., & Wanjohi, P. (2022). Masculinization of Politics and its Impact on Women's Political Ambitions in Kenya. African Journal of Gender and Society, 52(4), 1544-1563
Musyoka, L., & Nduku, P. (2021). Gendered Political Spaces: An Analysis of Women's Representation in Kenyan County Assemblies. Journal of Women and Politics, 52(4), 1544-1563
Mutiso, J., & Were, A. (2023). Self-Efficacy and Political Ambition: The Role of Higher Education for Kenyan Women Leaders. International Journal of Women's Leadership, 52(4), 1544-1563
Mwangi, E., & Kariuki, L. (2023). Clan Dynamics and Gender Bias in Political Aspirations in Kenyan Communities. East African Journal of Social Sciences, 52(4), 1544-1563
Mwikali, R., & Njoroge, K. (2020). Electoral Viability: The Impact of Education on Women Candidates' Success in Kenyan Elections. East African Journal of Electoral Studies, 52(4), 1544-1563
Nzomo, M., & Mutiso, M. (2020). From Community to Parliament: Pathways for Women's Political Leadership in Kenya. African Journal of Gender and Society, 52(4), 1544-1563
Okinda, T., Ojwang, B., & Nyambuga, C. (2020). Sociodemographic characteristics and political attitudes as correlates of women voters’ electoral participation in counties in Kenya. Politikon IAPSS Journal of Political Science, 44, 63-87. https://doi.org/10.22151/politikon.44.4
Okoo, J., & Kimani, A. (2021). Challenging Norms: The Role of Education in Fostering Women's Political Self-Efficacy in Kenya. Journal of Gender and Development, X(Y), 52(4), 1544-1563
Omondi, J. O., & Kilonzo, P. N. (2020). Traditional Perceptions of Leadership and Women's Political Participation in Kenya. Journal of Gender Studies in Africa, X(Y), 52(4), 1544-1563
Onalu, C. and Nwafor, N. (2020). Factors responsible for women low participation in political leadership in Awka-south Lga of Anambra state: practice consideration for Nigerian based social workers. International Journal of Engineering Applied Sciences and Technology, 04(09), 41-49. https://doi.org/10.33564/ijeast.2020.v04i09.005
Onditi, S. A., & Obondo, L. O. (2023). The Enduring Myth of Male Superiority: Cultural Beliefs and Women's Political Inclusion in Kenya. International Journal of African Studies, 52(4), 1544-1563
Onyango, A. N., & Cheche, E. W. (2021). Cultural Barriers to Women's Political Participation in Kenya: A Review of Recent Trends. African Journal of Gender and Development, 52(4), 1544-1563
Opoku, M., Anyango, B., & Alupo, B. (2018). Women in politics in Kenya: an analysis of participation and barriers. Multidisciplinary Journal of Gender Studies, 7(1), 1506. https://doi.org/10.17583/generos.2018.3179
Ozer, A. (2023). Women experts and gender bias in political media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 87(2), 293-315. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfad011
Roller, R. and Schweitzer, F. (2021). A new theory of social roles in networks.https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/xkafb
Sahu, T. and Yadav, K. (2018). Women’s education and political participation. International Journal of Advanced Education and Research, 3(6), 65-71. https://doi.org/10.22271/educatin.2018.v3.i6.15
Salfate, S., Páez, D., Liu, J., Pratto, F., & Zúñiga, H. (2018). A comparison of social dominance theory and system justification: the role of social status in 19 nations. Personality and social Psychology Bulletin, 44(7), 1060-1076. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218757455
Shlemon, Angelique and Shlemon, Kianna (2019) "The Interrelationship between Gender, Media, and Religion on Electoral Performance," Governance: The Political Science Journal at UNLV: Vol. 6, Article 3.
Turan, S & Mohamud, R. (2022). The role of higher education and political participation of women in Mogadishu.
United Nations, Economic and Social Council (2021). Women’s full and effective participation and decision-making in public life, as well as the elimination of violence, for achieving gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls: Report of the Secretary-General (E/CN.6/2021/3).
Wainaina, W. (2023). Capacity building and women leadership in Kenya political elective positions. International Journal of leadership and Governance, 3(2), 43-54. https://doi.org/10.47604/ijlg.2099
Wanjala, R., & Odhiambo, J. (2023). The Politicization of Morality: Stigma and Gender in Kenyan Political Campaigns. Journal of African Political Studies, 52(4), 1544-1563
Wanjiku, K., & Odhiambo, J. (2020). The Home and the Hustle: Traditional Gender Roles and Women's Political Choices in Kenya. Gender and Development Journal, 52(4), 1544-1563
Wanjiru, N., & Kiprono, C. (2021). Cultural Diversity and Varying Acceptance of Women in Leadership Roles in Kenyan Communities. Journal of Cross-Cultural Studies, 52(4), 1544-1563
Yanus, A. B. (2021). Religion, Gender, and Representation in American Politics. PS: Political Science & Politics, 54(3), 402–405. doi:10.1017/S1049096520001766
Zeng, Benxiang. (2019). Women’s Political Participation in China: Improved or Not? Journal of International Women's Studies. 15. 136-150
Adamu, R. (2023). Women participation in Nigerian politics: challenges and prospects to Nigerian democracy. International Journal of Humanity Studies (Ijhs), 6(2), 301-314. https://doi.org/10.24071/ijhs.v6i2.5295
Aderayo, A. (2022). Political parties and women‘s participation in politics in west Africa. Revista Feminismos, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.9771/rf.v9i2.47653
Ahn, S., Kim, J., & Kang, W. (2019). Low Female Political Representation in the US: An Institution-Based Explanation. Journal of International and Area Studies, 26(1), 65–88. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26909953
Akindele. A & Dunmade, E. (2020). The role of gender and religion on women participation in decision making process in Nigeria.
Ali, S.A. and Noah, S. (2022). The Effect of Culture on Women’s Participation in Political Leadership in Mogadishu, Federal Republic of Somalia. Open Access Library Journal, 9, 1-14. doi: 10.4236/oalib.1109329.
Anzia, S. F. and Bernhard, R. (2022). Gender stereotyping and the electoral success of women candidates: new evidence from local elections in the United States. British Journal of Political Science, 52(4), 1544-1563. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007123421000570
Atu. O., Odeh. E., Odibo.M., Agbo. C (2019). Gender inequality and women participation in governance in l,Enugu state: an evaluation from 2007-2011. Journal of Social Sciences. Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019
Bonikwowka, A. (2022). Who are Canada’s legislators? Characteristics and gender gaps among members of legislative bodies. Economic and Social Reports
Buchanan, I. (2024). Women in politics and public life. House of Commons Library.
Burchi, F. and Singh, K. (2020). Women’s political representation and educational attainments: a district-level analysis in India. Journal of South Asian Development, 15(1), 7-33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973174120913722
Chege, S. W., & Ochieng, E. O. (2022). Changing Perceptions of Women in Leadership Among Traditional Leaders in Kenya. African Journal of Political Science, 52(4), 1544-1563
Chimwe.E and Chinonso.M. (20233). Socio-cultural values and women political participation in Nigeria.
Devroe, R., & Wauters, B. (2018). Political Gender Stereotypes in a List-PR System with a High Share of Women MPs: Competent Men versus Leftist Women? Political Research Quarterly, 71(4), 788–800. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26600628
Dolan, K. and Lynch, T. (2016). The impact of gender stereotypes on voting for women candidates by level and type of office. Politics &Amp; Gender, 12(03), 573-595. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1743923x16000246
Fahrati, E. (2023). The power of social norms: exploring the influence of cultural factors on economic decision-making. West Science Interdisciplinary Studies, 1(6), 248-257. https://doi.org/10.58812/wsis.v1i6.97
Fischer, R., Karl, J., & Fischer, M. (2019). Retracted: norms across cultures: a cross-cultural meta-analysis of norms effects in the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 50(10), 1112-1126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022119846409
Gitau, M., & Njoroge, K. (2022). The Burden of Tradition: Gender Roles and Political Disengagement in Kenyan Women. East African Political Review, 52(4), 1544-1563
Guyo, S., & Cheboi, J. (2022). Marital Status and Women's Political Candidacy in Kenya: An Exploration of Cultural Barriers. International Journal of Gender and Development, 52(4), 1544 1563
Inter-Parliamentary Union (2019). Equality in politics: A survey of men and women in parliaments.
Jang, S. J., Brown, B. M., Witvliet, C. v., Leman, J., Johnson, B. R., & Bradshaw, M. (2023). Explaining the relationship between religiosity and political participation: the mediating roles of transcendent accountability and religiopolitical awareness. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 62(3), 549-579. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12843
Kagure, A. N. (2023). Negotiated Democracy and the Marginalization of Women in Kenyan Politics. Journal of African Elections, 52(4), 1544-1563
Kamau, P., & Ndung'u, S. (2021). Traditional Leadership and the Barriers to Women's Political Participation in Rural Kenya. Journal of Leadership and Development, 52(4), 1544-1563
Kariuki, P., & Njeru, L. (2021). The 'Place' of Women: Gender Stereotypes and Political Space in Urban Kenya. Journal of Gender Studies in Africa, 52(4), 1544-1563
Khadija, F., & Aisha, H. (2023). The Dual Burden: Family Responsibilities and Women's Political Careers in East Africa. Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 52(4), 1544-1563
Kilonzo, L. M., & Nzomo, M. (2023). Fostering Support: The Role of Community Leaders in Promoting Women's Political Engagement in Kenya. African Studies Review, 52(4), 1544-1563
Kimani, J., & Kariuki, L. (2021). Education as a Catalyst: Empowering Women for Political Leadership in Kenya. Journal of Gender and Development in Africa, 52(4), 1544-1563
Kisia, J., & Muriuki, R. (2021). Patriarchal Structures and Women's Political Representation in Kenya: A Critical Analysis. Journal of Gender and Development in Africa, 52(4), 1544-1563
Koriri, G, Amung, H. (2021). Women’s Participation in Governance and Political Processes in Kenya: Threats and Proposed Remedies.IARS' International Research Journal, vol. 11, núm. 2, pp. 46-54, 2021
Liu, R. W., Lapinski, M. K., Kerr, J. M., Zhao, J., Bum, T., & Lü, Z. (2022). Culture and social norms: development and application of a model for culturally contextualized communication measurement (mc3m). Frontiers in Communication, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2021.770513
Maguire. S. (2018). Barriers to Women Entering Parliament and Local Government. IPR Report 2028.
Mkandawire, T., & Chikoto, T. (2020). Cultural Norms, Patriarchy, and Women's Political Participation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of African Studies, 52(4), 1544-1563
Mlambo, C. and Kapingura, F. M. (2019). Factors influencing women political participation: the case of the sadc region. Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2019.1681048
Mugambi, F., & Okello, D. (2023). Political Literacy and Women's Participation in Governance in Kenya. African Journal of Civic Education, 52(4), 1544-1563
Muriithi, J., & Wanjohi, P. (2022). Masculinization of Politics and its Impact on Women's Political Ambitions in Kenya. African Journal of Gender and Society, 52(4), 1544-1563
Musyoka, L., & Nduku, P. (2021). Gendered Political Spaces: An Analysis of Women's Representation in Kenyan County Assemblies. Journal of Women and Politics, 52(4), 1544-1563
Mutiso, J., & Were, A. (2023). Self-Efficacy and Political Ambition: The Role of Higher Education for Kenyan Women Leaders. International Journal of Women's Leadership, 52(4), 1544-1563
Mwangi, E., & Kariuki, L. (2023). Clan Dynamics and Gender Bias in Political Aspirations in Kenyan Communities. East African Journal of Social Sciences, 52(4), 1544-1563
Mwikali, R., & Njoroge, K. (2020). Electoral Viability: The Impact of Education on Women Candidates' Success in Kenyan Elections. East African Journal of Electoral Studies, 52(4), 1544-1563
Nzomo, M., & Mutiso, M. (2020). From Community to Parliament: Pathways for Women's Political Leadership in Kenya. African Journal of Gender and Society, 52(4), 1544-1563
Okinda, T., Ojwang, B., & Nyambuga, C. (2020). Sociodemographic characteristics and political attitudes as correlates of women voters’ electoral participation in counties in Kenya. Politikon IAPSS Journal of Political Science, 44, 63-87. https://doi.org/10.22151/politikon.44.4
Okoo, J., & Kimani, A. (2021). Challenging Norms: The Role of Education in Fostering Women's Political Self-Efficacy in Kenya. Journal of Gender and Development, X(Y), 52(4), 1544-1563
Omondi, J. O., & Kilonzo, P. N. (2020). Traditional Perceptions of Leadership and Women's Political Participation in Kenya. Journal of Gender Studies in Africa, X(Y), 52(4), 1544-1563
Onalu, C. and Nwafor, N. (2020). Factors responsible for women low participation in political leadership in Awka-south Lga of Anambra state: practice consideration for Nigerian based social workers. International Journal of Engineering Applied Sciences and Technology, 04(09), 41-49. https://doi.org/10.33564/ijeast.2020.v04i09.005
Onditi, S. A., & Obondo, L. O. (2023). The Enduring Myth of Male Superiority: Cultural Beliefs and Women's Political Inclusion in Kenya. International Journal of African Studies, 52(4), 1544-1563
Onyango, A. N., & Cheche, E. W. (2021). Cultural Barriers to Women's Political Participation in Kenya: A Review of Recent Trends. African Journal of Gender and Development, 52(4), 1544-1563
Opoku, M., Anyango, B., & Alupo, B. (2018). Women in politics in Kenya: an analysis of participation and barriers. Multidisciplinary Journal of Gender Studies, 7(1), 1506. https://doi.org/10.17583/generos.2018.3179
Ozer, A. (2023). Women experts and gender bias in political media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 87(2), 293-315. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfad011
Roller, R. and Schweitzer, F. (2021). A new theory of social roles in networks.https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/xkafb
Sahu, T. and Yadav, K. (2018). Women’s education and political participation. International Journal of Advanced Education and Research, 3(6), 65-71. https://doi.org/10.22271/educatin.2018.v3.i6.15
Salfate, S., Páez, D., Liu, J., Pratto, F., & Zúñiga, H. (2018). A comparison of social dominance theory and system justification: the role of social status in 19 nations. Personality and social Psychology Bulletin, 44(7), 1060-1076. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218757455
Shlemon, Angelique and Shlemon, Kianna (2019) "The Interrelationship between Gender, Media, and Religion on Electoral Performance," Governance: The Political Science Journal at UNLV: Vol. 6, Article 3.
Turan, S & Mohamud, R. (2022). The role of higher education and political participation of women in Mogadishu.
United Nations, Economic and Social Council (2021). Women’s full and effective participation and decision-making in public life, as well as the elimination of violence, for achieving gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls: Report of the Secretary-General (E/CN.6/2021/3).
Wainaina, W. (2023). Capacity building and women leadership in Kenya political elective positions. International Journal of leadership and Governance, 3(2), 43-54. https://doi.org/10.47604/ijlg.2099
Wanjala, R., & Odhiambo, J. (2023). The Politicization of Morality: Stigma and Gender in Kenyan Political Campaigns. Journal of African Political Studies, 52(4), 1544-1563
Wanjiku, K., & Odhiambo, J. (2020). The Home and the Hustle: Traditional Gender Roles and Women's Political Choices in Kenya. Gender and Development Journal, 52(4), 1544-1563
Wanjiru, N., & Kiprono, C. (2021). Cultural Diversity and Varying Acceptance of Women in Leadership Roles in Kenyan Communities. Journal of Cross-Cultural Studies, 52(4), 1544-1563
Yanus, A. B. (2021). Religion, Gender, and Representation in American Politics. PS: Political Science & Politics, 54(3), 402–405. doi:10.1017/S1049096520001766
Zeng, Benxiang. (2019). Women’s Political Participation in China: Improved or Not? Journal of International Women's Studies. 15. 136-150
