EFFECTS OF DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ON ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT IN KIAMBU
A CASE OF KIAMBAA SUB COUNTY
Keywords:
Drug and Substance Abuse, Law Enforcement, Therapeutic Management, Empowerment
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of drug and substance use management practices on economic empowerment in Kiambu County, a County that continues to experience diminishing economic empowerment, especially among the young male folk, mainly due to increased drug and substance abuse. The following objectives were used as a guideline for the study: to assess the effect of drug and substance abuse prevention practices, to find out the impact of drug and substance abuse and law enforcement practices, and to assess the effect of drug and substance abuse Therapeutic management practices on the economic empowerment of Kiambu. The study was anchored on self-efficacy Theory, Cohen Status Frustration Theory and Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. A descriptive research design was adopted, and the composition of the target population was ward administrators, MAT caregivers, police officers, OC Crime, Deputy County Commissioner and National government administrative officers (NGAO) were sampled using stratified simple random sampling. Key informants were purposively selected. A total of 200 respondents were targeted, and a sample size of 67 was used to collect data using a structured questionnaire; for data analysis, inferential and descriptive methods were used for quantitative data; for the presentation of data, figures and tables were used by harnessing the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). The study adopted a multivariate regression analysis. The study outcome indicated, and it shows, that drug and substance abuse management practices influence 30 per cent of economic empowerment in Kiambu County through the implementation of various mitigation practices by ward administrators, MAT caregivers, hospital administrators, National government administrative officers (NGAOs) and Police officers. Variables outside this model contribute the remaining 70 per cent. The model was, therefore, appropriate for inferential statistics. Economic empowerment increased when a single unit increased prevention program strategies, law enforcement practices, and therapeutic interventions. In conclusion, the joint effect of prevention program strategies, law enforcement practices, and therapeutic interventions is crucial for the economic empowerment of drug abuse victims. Recommendations included enhancing stakeholder collaboration and communication, including prevention program providers, law enforcement agencies, healthcare professionals, and economic empowerment organizations.
References
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Brathwaite, R., Massy Mutumba, Nanteza, J., Filiatreau, L. M., Migadde, H., Phionah Namatovu, Betina Nabisere, Mugisha, J., Mwebembezi, A., & Ssewamala, F. M. (2023). Assessing the Feasibility of Economic Approaches to Prevent Substance Abuse Among Adolescents: Protocol for a Mixed Methods Study. JMIR Research Protocols, 12, e46486–e46486.
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Caulkins, J. P., & Kleiman, M. A. (2011). Drugs and crime. The Oxford handbook of crime and criminal justice, 275-320.
Chelagat, J., et al. (2020). Community involvement in the fight against drug abuse in Kenya: A case of Nairobi County. International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health, 7(11), 4373-4380.
Chepkwony, S. J., Chelule, E., & Barmao, A. C. (2013). An Investigation Into Prevalence And Factors Contributing To Relapse Among Alcoholics In Selected Rehabilitation Centres In Nairobi County, Kenya. International Journal of Innovative Research and Development, 2(8).
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2006). Marketing research. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Creswell, J. W. (2003). A framework for design. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, 9-11.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. psychometrika, 16(3), 297-334.
Csiernik, R. (2016). Substance use and abuse: Everything matters. Canadian Scholars’ Press.
Degenhardt, L., et al. (2020). Global burden of disease attributable to illicit drug use and dependence: Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(5),
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El-Khatib, Z., et al. (2021). The Role of Law Enforcement Officers/Police in Drug Prevention within Educational Settings—Study Protocol for the Development of a Guiding Document Based on Experts’ Opinions. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(5), 2613.
Ellis, D. J. & Jeffe (2017). Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy and Individual Psychology. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 73(4), 272-282.
Ellis, D.J., Doyle, K. A., & DiGiuseppe, R. (2015). Behavior Therapy (REBT) Theory. Contemporary Theory and Practice in Counseling and Psychotherapy, 233.
Esbec, E., & Echeburúa, E. (2016). Substance abuse and crime: considerations for a comprehensive forensic assessment. Adicciones, 28(1).
Florence, C., Luo, F., Xu, L., & Zhou, C. (2016). The economic burden of prescription opioid overdose, abuse and dependence in the United States, 2013. Medical care, 54(10), 901.
Gateri, L. N., & Nyakwana, T. (2018). Factors Predisposing to Drug and Substance Abuse among the Youth in Gachie, Kiambu County, Kenya. Journal of Medicine, Nursing & Public Health, 1(1), 1-12.
Goldstein, P. J. (1985). The drugs/violence nexus: A tripartite conceptual framework. Journal of drug issues, 15(4), 493-506.
Goodstadt, M. S. (2015). National strategic drug plan: Uruguay; site visit, Addiction Research Foundation consultants' report.
Griffin, K. W., & Botvin, G. J. (2020). Evidence-Based interventions for preventing substance use disorders in adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 19(3), 505–526.
Grusec, J. E. (1992). Social learning theory and developmental psychology: The legacies.
Ibrahim, K. A., et al. (2021). Law enforcement collaboration with healthcare professionals: A promising strategy in addressing the opioid crisis. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 122, 108249.
Johnson, K., Courser, M., Holder, H., Miller, B., Ogilvie, K., Moore, R., Collins, D., Saltz, B., Ogilvie, D., & Saylor, B. (2021). A Community Prevention Intervention to Reduce Youth from Inhaling and Ingesting Harmful Legal Products. Journal of Drug Education, 37(3), 227–247.
Jones, C. M., Logan, J., Gladden, R. M., & Bohm, M. K. (2015). Vital signs: demographic and substance use trends among heroin users—United States, 2002–2013. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 64(26), 719.
Kalangi, J. A. (2018). Evaluating access and use of information services by patients of alcohol and drug abuse in Nairobi County: A case study of Asumbi treatment centre (Doctoral dissertation, Moi University).
Kipkemboi, K. D. (2013). Radiograph patterns of pulmonary tuberculosis in relation to CD4 levels in HIV-positive adults at Moi teaching and referral hospital (Doctoral dissertation, Moi Univesity).
Kothari, C. (2006). Research Methodology: methods and techniques. Reprint. Dehli: New Age International, 14-16.
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age International.
Kwambai, M., & Kimutai, K. S. (2017). Effects of Consumers Perceived Barriers to the Implementation of Alcoholic Drinks Control Act, 2010 on Compliance. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 7(11), 963-976.
Lutta, P. (2016). Corruption and Enforcement Personnel as Factors That Influence the Implementation of Alcohol and Drug Abuse Policies in Nairobi County (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Magidson, J. F., et al. (2018). Economic, labor, and regulatory moderators of the effect of vocational counseling
Malick, R. (2019). Prevention of substance use disorders in the community and workplace. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 60(Suppl 4), S559–S563.
Marín-Navarrete, R., Medina-Mora, M. E., Pérez-López, A., & Horigian, V. E. (2018). Development and evaluation of addiction treatment programs in Latin America. Current opinion in psychiatry, 31(4), 306.
McKay, J. R. (2021). Impact of Continuing Care on Recovery from Substance Use Disorder. Alcohol Research: Current Reviews, 41(1).
Meena, K. R., et al. (2020). Community involvement in drug abuse prevention: A systematic review of programs in India. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 111, 1-10.
Meyer, J. P., Isaacs, K., El-Shahawy, O., Burlew, A. K., & Wechsberg, W. (2019). Research on women with substance use disorders: Reviewing progress and developing a research and implementation roadmap. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 197, 158–163.
Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (1999). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Acts press.
Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, M. AG (2003). Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches, Nairobi: African Centre Technology Studies press (ACTS).
Munson, M. R., Jaccard, J., Moore, K. L., Rodwin, A. H., Shimizu, R., Cole, A., Scott, L. D., Narendorf, S. C., Davis, M., Gilmer, T., & Stanhope, V. (2022). Impact of a brief intervention to improve engagement in a recovery program for young adults with serious mental illness. 250, 104–111.
Mutiso, V. N., et al. (2021). Enhancing drug abuse prevention and intervention through peer support networks in Kenya. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1-15.
Mutiso, V. N., et al. (2021). Using the WHO-AIMS to inform development of mental health systems: the case study of Makueni County, Kenya. BMC Health Services Research, 20, 1-12.
NACADA (2011). Strategies to enhance interpersonal relations in academic advising. NACADA journal, 31(2), 22-32.
NACADA (2012). Efficacy of advising outreach on student retention, academic progress and achievement, and frequency of advising contacts: A longitudinal randomized trial. NACADA Journal, 32(2), 36-43.
NACADA. (2021). Assessment of Emerging Trends of Drugs and Substance Abuse in Kenya.
NACADA. (2023). National Authority for the Campaign Against Alcohol and Drug Abuse Rapid Situation Assessment of Drugs and Substance Abuse in Kenya.
Nawi, A. M., Ismail, R., Ibrahim, F., Hassan, M. R., Manaf, M. R. A., Amit, N., Ibrahim, N., & Shafurdin, N. S. (2021). Risk and protective factors of drug abuse among adolescents: a systematic review. BMC Public Health, 21(1).
Nelson Marwa Sospeter, & Kennedy Onkware. (2023). Evaluation of Government Programs in Mitigating Drug and Substance Abuse in Kilifi and Mombasa Counties, Kenya. African Journal of Empirical Research, 4(2), 119–134.
Nzuki, D., et al. (2019). Engaging law enforcement
Ojonuba, H. S., Abdul Rahman, H., Zaremohzzabieh, Z., & Mohd Zulkefli, N. A. (2023). The Effectiveness of an Empowerment Education Intervention for Substance Use Reduction among Inner-City Adolescents in Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(4), 3731.
Pavlov, I. P., & e Anrep, G. V. (2003). Conditioned reflexes: Courier Corporation.
Peltzer, K., & Ramlagan, S. (2010). Safer sexual behaviours after 1 year of antiretroviral treatment in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: a prospective cohort study. Sexual health, 7(2), 135-141.
Pervez, G. & Kjell (2005). Research Methods In Business Studies: A Practical Guide, 3/E. Pearson Education India.
Pro, G., Camplain, R., Sabo, S., Baldwin, J., & Gilbert, P. A. (2018). Substance Abuse Treatment in Correctional versus Non-Correctional Settings: Analysis of Racial/Ethnic and Gender Differences. Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice, 12(3), 1.
Rehm J., Mathers C., Popova S., Thavorncharoensap M., Teerawattananon Y., Patra J. Global burden of disease and injury and economic cost attributable to alcohol use and alcohol‐use disorders. Lancet 2009; 373: 2223– 2233.
Ronoh, K. C. (2014). Effectiveness of drug and substance abuse prevention programs in selected public and private universities in Kenya. Nairobi: unpublished Phd Thesis.
Sarker, S. K., & Faller, E. M. (2016). An exploratory framework of drug related crime in forensic sciences and criminology. Malaysian applications Biology, 45(2), 93-97.
Scherlen, R. G. (2012). US Evaluation of Mexican Drug War Efforts: Short-Termed and Short-Sighted. The Latin Americanist, 56(2), 35-61.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2016). Research methods for business: A skill building approach. John Wiley & Sons.
Skinner, B. F. (2011). About behaviorism. Vintage.
Strom, K. (2016). Research on the Impact of Technology on Policing Strategy in the 21st century, Final Report.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). World Drug Report 2017. Vienna: UNODC; 2017.
Uwakwe, R., & Gureje, O. (2011). The relationship of comorbidity of mental and substance use disorders with suicidal behaviors in the Nigerian. Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 46(3), 173-180.
Villafañe, S. M., Xu, X., & Raker, J. R. (2016). Self-efficacy and academic performance in first-semester organic chemistry: testing a model of reciprocal causation. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 17(4), 973-984.
Wasburn, P. C., & Covert, T. J. A. (2017). Some “What” Questions About Future Citizens. In Making Citizens (pp. 219-245). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
Watson, D. (2013). Contouring: a guide to the analysis and display of spatial data. Elsevier.
White, H. R., & Gorman, D. M. (2000). Dynamics of the Drug-Crime. Criminal justice 2000, 1.
Williams, T. (2016). EMC for product designers. Newnes.
Wright, C. P. (2017). Drug abuse and antisocial behavior: A biosocial life course approach. Springer.
Yurtseven, S., Karabulut, M., Aytekin, S. O., & Nasibov, H. (2019, June). Investigation of Enviromental Effects on the Normalized Spectral Responsivity of an InGaAs Detector. In 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA) (pp. 1-6). IEEE.
Babor, T. F. (2010). Public health science and the global strategy on alcohol.
Bandura, A. (1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of social and clinical psychology, 4(3), 359-373.
Bickel, W. K., & DeGrandpre, R. J. (Eds.). (2013). Drug policy and human nature: psychological perspectives on the prevention, management, and treatment of illicit drug abuse. Springer Science & Business Media.
Borg, W. R., & Gall, M. D, (1989). Educational Research. A Guide for Preparing a Thesis or Dissertation Proposal in Education. Longman, Inc., Order Dept., 95 Church Street, White Plains, NY 10601 Stock No. 78164-6.
Botvin, G. J., & Griffin, K. W. (2020). Drug Abuse Prevention Curricula in Schools. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research, 45–74.
Boyum, D. A., Caulkins, J. P., & Kleiman, M. A. (2011). Drugs, crime, and public policy. Crime and public policy, 368-410.
Brathwaite, R., Massy Mutumba, Nanteza, J., Filiatreau, L. M., Migadde, H., Phionah Namatovu, Betina Nabisere, Mugisha, J., Mwebembezi, A., & Ssewamala, F. M. (2023). Assessing the Feasibility of Economic Approaches to Prevent Substance Abuse Among Adolescents: Protocol for a Mixed Methods Study. JMIR Research Protocols, 12, e46486–e46486.
Butler, J. C. (2017). 2017 ASTHO President's Challenge: Public Health Approaches to Preventing Substance Misuse and Addiction. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 23(5), 531.
Caulkins, J. P., & Kleiman, M. A. (2011). Drugs and crime. The Oxford handbook of crime and criminal justice, 275-320.
Chelagat, J., et al. (2020). Community involvement in the fight against drug abuse in Kenya: A case of Nairobi County. International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health, 7(11), 4373-4380.
Chepkwony, S. J., Chelule, E., & Barmao, A. C. (2013). An Investigation Into Prevalence And Factors Contributing To Relapse Among Alcoholics In Selected Rehabilitation Centres In Nairobi County, Kenya. International Journal of Innovative Research and Development, 2(8).
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2006). Marketing research. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Creswell, J. W. (2003). A framework for design. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, 9-11.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. psychometrika, 16(3), 297-334.
Csiernik, R. (2016). Substance use and abuse: Everything matters. Canadian Scholars’ Press.
Degenhardt, L., et al. (2020). Global burden of disease attributable to illicit drug use and dependence: Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(5),
Easton, B., Burd, L., Rehm, J., & Popova, S. (2016). Productivity losses associated with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in New Zealand. The New Zealand Medical Journal (Online), 129(1440), 72.
El-Khatib, Z., et al. (2021). The Role of Law Enforcement Officers/Police in Drug Prevention within Educational Settings—Study Protocol for the Development of a Guiding Document Based on Experts’ Opinions. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(5), 2613.
Ellis, D. J. & Jeffe (2017). Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy and Individual Psychology. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 73(4), 272-282.
Ellis, D.J., Doyle, K. A., & DiGiuseppe, R. (2015). Behavior Therapy (REBT) Theory. Contemporary Theory and Practice in Counseling and Psychotherapy, 233.
Esbec, E., & Echeburúa, E. (2016). Substance abuse and crime: considerations for a comprehensive forensic assessment. Adicciones, 28(1).
Florence, C., Luo, F., Xu, L., & Zhou, C. (2016). The economic burden of prescription opioid overdose, abuse and dependence in the United States, 2013. Medical care, 54(10), 901.
Gateri, L. N., & Nyakwana, T. (2018). Factors Predisposing to Drug and Substance Abuse among the Youth in Gachie, Kiambu County, Kenya. Journal of Medicine, Nursing & Public Health, 1(1), 1-12.
Goldstein, P. J. (1985). The drugs/violence nexus: A tripartite conceptual framework. Journal of drug issues, 15(4), 493-506.
Goodstadt, M. S. (2015). National strategic drug plan: Uruguay; site visit, Addiction Research Foundation consultants' report.
Griffin, K. W., & Botvin, G. J. (2020). Evidence-Based interventions for preventing substance use disorders in adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 19(3), 505–526.
Grusec, J. E. (1992). Social learning theory and developmental psychology: The legacies.
Ibrahim, K. A., et al. (2021). Law enforcement collaboration with healthcare professionals: A promising strategy in addressing the opioid crisis. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 122, 108249.
Johnson, K., Courser, M., Holder, H., Miller, B., Ogilvie, K., Moore, R., Collins, D., Saltz, B., Ogilvie, D., & Saylor, B. (2021). A Community Prevention Intervention to Reduce Youth from Inhaling and Ingesting Harmful Legal Products. Journal of Drug Education, 37(3), 227–247.
Jones, C. M., Logan, J., Gladden, R. M., & Bohm, M. K. (2015). Vital signs: demographic and substance use trends among heroin users—United States, 2002–2013. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 64(26), 719.
Kalangi, J. A. (2018). Evaluating access and use of information services by patients of alcohol and drug abuse in Nairobi County: A case study of Asumbi treatment centre (Doctoral dissertation, Moi University).
Kipkemboi, K. D. (2013). Radiograph patterns of pulmonary tuberculosis in relation to CD4 levels in HIV-positive adults at Moi teaching and referral hospital (Doctoral dissertation, Moi Univesity).
Kothari, C. (2006). Research Methodology: methods and techniques. Reprint. Dehli: New Age International, 14-16.
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age International.
Kwambai, M., & Kimutai, K. S. (2017). Effects of Consumers Perceived Barriers to the Implementation of Alcoholic Drinks Control Act, 2010 on Compliance. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 7(11), 963-976.
Lutta, P. (2016). Corruption and Enforcement Personnel as Factors That Influence the Implementation of Alcohol and Drug Abuse Policies in Nairobi County (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Magidson, J. F., et al. (2018). Economic, labor, and regulatory moderators of the effect of vocational counseling
Malick, R. (2019). Prevention of substance use disorders in the community and workplace. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 60(Suppl 4), S559–S563.
Marín-Navarrete, R., Medina-Mora, M. E., Pérez-López, A., & Horigian, V. E. (2018). Development and evaluation of addiction treatment programs in Latin America. Current opinion in psychiatry, 31(4), 306.
McKay, J. R. (2021). Impact of Continuing Care on Recovery from Substance Use Disorder. Alcohol Research: Current Reviews, 41(1).
Meena, K. R., et al. (2020). Community involvement in drug abuse prevention: A systematic review of programs in India. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 111, 1-10.
Meyer, J. P., Isaacs, K., El-Shahawy, O., Burlew, A. K., & Wechsberg, W. (2019). Research on women with substance use disorders: Reviewing progress and developing a research and implementation roadmap. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 197, 158–163.
Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (1999). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Acts press.
Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, M. AG (2003). Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches, Nairobi: African Centre Technology Studies press (ACTS).
Munson, M. R., Jaccard, J., Moore, K. L., Rodwin, A. H., Shimizu, R., Cole, A., Scott, L. D., Narendorf, S. C., Davis, M., Gilmer, T., & Stanhope, V. (2022). Impact of a brief intervention to improve engagement in a recovery program for young adults with serious mental illness. 250, 104–111.
Mutiso, V. N., et al. (2021). Enhancing drug abuse prevention and intervention through peer support networks in Kenya. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1-15.
Mutiso, V. N., et al. (2021). Using the WHO-AIMS to inform development of mental health systems: the case study of Makueni County, Kenya. BMC Health Services Research, 20, 1-12.
NACADA (2011). Strategies to enhance interpersonal relations in academic advising. NACADA journal, 31(2), 22-32.
NACADA (2012). Efficacy of advising outreach on student retention, academic progress and achievement, and frequency of advising contacts: A longitudinal randomized trial. NACADA Journal, 32(2), 36-43.
NACADA. (2021). Assessment of Emerging Trends of Drugs and Substance Abuse in Kenya.
NACADA. (2023). National Authority for the Campaign Against Alcohol and Drug Abuse Rapid Situation Assessment of Drugs and Substance Abuse in Kenya.
Nawi, A. M., Ismail, R., Ibrahim, F., Hassan, M. R., Manaf, M. R. A., Amit, N., Ibrahim, N., & Shafurdin, N. S. (2021). Risk and protective factors of drug abuse among adolescents: a systematic review. BMC Public Health, 21(1).
Nelson Marwa Sospeter, & Kennedy Onkware. (2023). Evaluation of Government Programs in Mitigating Drug and Substance Abuse in Kilifi and Mombasa Counties, Kenya. African Journal of Empirical Research, 4(2), 119–134.
Nzuki, D., et al. (2019). Engaging law enforcement
Ojonuba, H. S., Abdul Rahman, H., Zaremohzzabieh, Z., & Mohd Zulkefli, N. A. (2023). The Effectiveness of an Empowerment Education Intervention for Substance Use Reduction among Inner-City Adolescents in Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(4), 3731.
Pavlov, I. P., & e Anrep, G. V. (2003). Conditioned reflexes: Courier Corporation.
Peltzer, K., & Ramlagan, S. (2010). Safer sexual behaviours after 1 year of antiretroviral treatment in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: a prospective cohort study. Sexual health, 7(2), 135-141.
Pervez, G. & Kjell (2005). Research Methods In Business Studies: A Practical Guide, 3/E. Pearson Education India.
Pro, G., Camplain, R., Sabo, S., Baldwin, J., & Gilbert, P. A. (2018). Substance Abuse Treatment in Correctional versus Non-Correctional Settings: Analysis of Racial/Ethnic and Gender Differences. Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice, 12(3), 1.
Rehm J., Mathers C., Popova S., Thavorncharoensap M., Teerawattananon Y., Patra J. Global burden of disease and injury and economic cost attributable to alcohol use and alcohol‐use disorders. Lancet 2009; 373: 2223– 2233.
Ronoh, K. C. (2014). Effectiveness of drug and substance abuse prevention programs in selected public and private universities in Kenya. Nairobi: unpublished Phd Thesis.
Sarker, S. K., & Faller, E. M. (2016). An exploratory framework of drug related crime in forensic sciences and criminology. Malaysian applications Biology, 45(2), 93-97.
Scherlen, R. G. (2012). US Evaluation of Mexican Drug War Efforts: Short-Termed and Short-Sighted. The Latin Americanist, 56(2), 35-61.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2016). Research methods for business: A skill building approach. John Wiley & Sons.
Skinner, B. F. (2011). About behaviorism. Vintage.
Strom, K. (2016). Research on the Impact of Technology on Policing Strategy in the 21st century, Final Report.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). World Drug Report 2017. Vienna: UNODC; 2017.
Uwakwe, R., & Gureje, O. (2011). The relationship of comorbidity of mental and substance use disorders with suicidal behaviors in the Nigerian. Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 46(3), 173-180.
Villafañe, S. M., Xu, X., & Raker, J. R. (2016). Self-efficacy and academic performance in first-semester organic chemistry: testing a model of reciprocal causation. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 17(4), 973-984.
Wasburn, P. C., & Covert, T. J. A. (2017). Some “What” Questions About Future Citizens. In Making Citizens (pp. 219-245). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
Watson, D. (2013). Contouring: a guide to the analysis and display of spatial data. Elsevier.
White, H. R., & Gorman, D. M. (2000). Dynamics of the Drug-Crime. Criminal justice 2000, 1.
Williams, T. (2016). EMC for product designers. Newnes.
Wright, C. P. (2017). Drug abuse and antisocial behavior: A biosocial life course approach. Springer.
Yurtseven, S., Karabulut, M., Aytekin, S. O., & Nasibov, H. (2019, June). Investigation of Enviromental Effects on the Normalized Spectral Responsivity of an InGaAs Detector. In 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA) (pp. 1-6). IEEE.
